Learning to read can be hard work!

There are many types of learning disabilities and learning difficulties.

Learning disabilities should not be confused with an intellectual disability. An intellectual disability is a severe deficit in cognitive functioning. This is classified by an IQ score of less than 70. An IQ score of 100 is average (range 85 – 115).  People with intellectual disabilities will have difficulties with learning.

Learning disabilities generally fall into two major categories:

1. General Processing issues
2. Specific Learning Disabilities ( i.e. dyslexia)

If a person has general processing issues, they may also have a Learning Disability (or difficulty).

General Processing Issues

Some types of learning disabilities are defined by a cognitive processing problem.

• Auditory Processing – The ability to perceive and understand what is heard. With this disorder there is no issue with the ability to hear, however students often struggle in the classroom to follow instructions, or complete work efficiently with background noise.
• Processing Speed – The rate or speed at which the brain handles information. These people take longer to complete tasks, struggle to complete set work and spend long periods of time on homework tasks.
• Working Memory – The ability to retain and process information for short time periods. This is often referred to as short term memory. These people need to develop specific strategies to overcome these short falls in memory. They often have problems with remembering times tables.
• Long-Term Memory – The ability to both store and recall information for later use.
• Attention – The ability to remain on task in a sustained, selective, or divided way. These people may fall into the category of Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)  or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
• Visual Processing – The ability to perceive, analyse and think in visual images, or manipulate visual information. This is a sensory disability related to processing images.
• Logic and Reasoning – The ability to reason, prioritise, and plan. These people often appear disorganised and struggle to meet deadlines.

Learning Disabilities

Dyslexia – is a neurologically disorder that is often genetic and interferes with the acquisition and processing of language.

Specific developmental dyslexia is a disorder manifested by difficulty learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and adequate socio-cultural opportunity.

Dyslexia may vary in its severity; it is manifested by difficulties in receptive and expressive language – including phonological processing – in reading, writing, spelling, handwriting and sometimes in mathematics.

Learning disabilities or dyslexia have traditionally been diagnosed with a cognitive or intelligence test and an achievement test. If a person scores within the average range for intelligence and two standard deviations below average on the achievement test, they may fit the criteria for dyslexia. The type of learning disability depends on the area of deficit.

Research based definitions into learning disabilities tend to have veered away from a discrepancy between intellect and achievement, and instead have focused on low achievement, with poor response to intervention.  Some researchers even believe that learning disabilities are due to poor education. This is primary due to the fact that those people with dyslexia can be taught language skills and have the potential achieve at a high level, they simply acquire language differently.

Types of Dyslexia

• Word Level Reading Recognition Disability (WLRD) or Phonological Dyslexia - a neurologically based condition which is characterised by difficulty understanding and applying the alphabetic principle. (The student has trouble reading written words fluently, out loud).

The alphabetic principle is the understanding that letters and combinations of letters are the symbols used to represent the speech sounds; and that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters, symbols, and spoken words.

• Reading Comprehension Disability or Dysphasia – A language disability where the student has difficulty with reading comprehension.  (Students can often read words fluently, but do not fully understand what has been read).
• Specific Learning Disability in Spelling – A disability associated with spelling words. A spelling disability may be diagnosed if they are significantly below what is to be expected for their cognitive ability.
• Dysgraphia – A writing disability where the student has difficulty with forming letters and legibility.
• Dyscalculia – A maths disability where the student struggles with maths problems and concepts.

Other Learning Disabilities

• Dyspraxia – A motor coordination disability (also known as Sensory Integration Disorder). Dyspraxia is a neurologically based developmental disability which is present from birth.
• Non-Verbal Learning Disorder – A visual-spatial disability related to body control. Usually characterised by a discrepancy between high scores on verbal and lower scores on performance scores (on an IQ test), with deficits also in motor, visual-spatial and social skills.

There are also other disorders classified under communication disorders, these include: Expressive language disorder, Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder, Phonological disorder, and Stuttering. Communication disorders are usually assessed and treated by a Speech Pathologist.  Educational Psychologists may refer to Speech Pathologists if they suspect a communication disorder.

If you suspect your child may have a processing issue or learning disability, it is recommended that you contact an Educational Psychologist and ask for a full Educational Assessment. This should involve a cognitive or IQ test (such as the WISC-IV) and an achievement test (such as the WIAT-II).

If you live in Melbourne, contact School Psychology Services to talk about assessment options.

Why use a WIAT to assess children?

I am often asked about the WIAT (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test). The WIAT is an individually administered test that takes from 30 to 90mintes to administer.

An achievement test measure how an individual is going in certain areas of academic school work.

The WIAT gives a good overall summary of functioning in the following areas: reading, maths, written language and oral language.

If an individual has a high or average IQ and is significantly below average in reading, maths or written language they may have a specific learning disability in a certain area. Dyslexia is a specific learning disability associated with problem in reading.

If an individual has an extremely high IQ, but is under achieving at school, they may fall into the category of “gifted – learning disabled”.

A WIAT is a good way to see how a child is going in a variety of academic subjects compared to other people their own age.

The WIAT – II has the following sub tests:

• Word Reading
• Reading Comprehension
• Pseudo word Decoding (this is reading a variety of nonsense words, where the student must apply his or her phonetic knowledge to sound out unfamiliar words). This subtest is a good indication of reading problems such as dyslexia.
• Numerical Operations – written maths problems.
• Maths Reasoning – verbally presented problems with visual cues.
• Spelling
• Written Expression
• Listening Comprehension, and
• Oral Expression.

One of the major advantages of using a WIAT is that it can be used in combination with a WISC-IV assessment and the computer scoring program derives predicted scored in achievement areas, based on an individual’s IQ. If the predicted score is much higher than the actual score in an achievement area, there is often a problem associated with these skills. Psychologists are then able to identify specific learning disabilities or difficulties in a certain area. There are many other good reasons to conduct psychological assessment.

If you would like you child assessed with a WIAT, it is best to have it done by a qualified educational psychologist, who has experience with the school environment. While other psychologists are qualified to use this assessment tool, only psychologists with working knowledge of a school environment are able to make appropriate teaching accommodations and recommendations for the best educational outcomes.

School Psychology Services offers the WIAT assessment.

References:

• Harcourt Assessment Company
• Sattler, J, M. (2001). Assessment of Children: Cognitive Applications. Sattler: San Diego

Why Assess at Year 10?

Psychological Testing is beneficial at Year 10 for several reasons. Psychological Assessment seeks to answer some of the following questions:

• Is there is reason why a student does poorly on exams and tests?
• Is the student capable of achieving success in certain subjects? This will assist with planning for relevant subject selection.
• Should a student take verbally based subjects or opt for more practical subjects?  This will review an individual’s best learning style.
• Is the student under achieving? If so, is there a reason for this?
• Are there problems with the speed of processing information? If so, does the school need to apply for extra time for exams?
• Is the student struggling with reading and comprehension?
• Does the student experience problems with short term memory? If so, does the student need memory strategies?
• Does the student have problems with visually or verbally presented information? If so, do teachers need to modify the way the material is presented in class?
• Does the student have an auditory processing difficulty? If so, what needs to be put in place for the best possible outcomes?
• Does the student have a specific learning disability? If so, what specific help does the student need?
• Does the student need a specialised tutor to assist them in certain subjects?
• Does the student need help with organisation and planning?
• What areas will a student naturally succeed in?

The best way to answer many of these questions and many more is to conduct a full WISC-IV and WIAT –II assessment. This will give a learning profile that reflects both cognitive ability and academic achievement. Students many then benefit from specialised coaching programs that are designed to assist with maximising their potential to achieve VCE success.

However, there are many benefits for psychological assessment and often the more information and the early the information is gathered, the more tailored the intervention programs can be.

Assessment is a way of gaining some understanding of a child in order to make informed and appropriate decisions.

Child Testing

Why should a child be tested?

• To screen for any cognitive deficits.
• To assess for eligibility for funding.
• To understand a child’s learning profile or preferred learning style.
• To assess for learning disorders (such as reading, mathematics or writing disorders, including dyslexia).
• To provide intervention programs for children with specialised needs.
• To assess gifted children in order to provide appropriate and stimulating learning environments.
• To test for school readiness.
• To gain early access to school or to remain in kinder another year.
• To identify developmental delays and provide appropriate interventions for psycho educational disorders or problems as early in a child’s life as possible.
• To understand uncharacteristic behaviours and/ or emotional issues that are presenting at either home or school.

What is IQ?

IQ stands for Intelligent Quotient. It is an indication of a person’s intelligence as indicated by an intelligence test. There are a variety of IQ tests available. However, not all are reliable and valid.

Test Reliability refers to the degree to which a test is consistent and stable in measuring what it is intended to measure. For example an IQ test should be consistent with itself and across time.

Test validity refers to the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to measure. The Wechsler tests (which include both the WISC-IV and the WPPSI-III have strong reliability and validity).

What are the best IQ or Intelligence Tests for Children?
The Wechsler tests are the most common individually administered IQ or intelligence tests, especially for children. These tests are expensive to purchase and requires a fully qualified psychologist to conduct the assessment. (In Australia – the current requirement is 6 years of university training to become a psychologist).  The best two tests to assess children are:

1. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV Australian). Ages: 6 to 16 years, 11 months.
2. Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence – Third Edition (WPPSI-III Australian). Ages 2 years, 6 months to 7 years, three months.

How scores are reported

Psychologists write a report after an assessment of a child.

The scores show how well a child performed compared to a group of children the same age from across Australia.  The highest possible score is 160 and the lowest possible score is 40 for most skills tested.  Half of all children will score less than 100, and half of all children will score more than 100.  Scores from 90 to 109 are average.

A percentile rank is also given.  This shows your child’s rank in the national comparison group.  If the percentile rank were 45, for example, it would mean that she scored higher than approximately 45 out of 100 children her age.

When reviewing a child’s scores, remember that no test is perfectly accurate.  Any child might score slightly higher or lower if tested again on a different day. Most psychologists will include a normal distribution graph, such as the one below.

Normal Distribution of IQ

The orange section is where most children will score on each subtest (this is the average range). Gifted children fall within the yellow right hand section and those with disabilities will fall within the yellow left hand section of the graph.

Why conduct assessment?

Assessment is useful to identify an individual’s learning ability.  More information on Psychological Assessments for students can be found here.

Usually I recommended both a WISC ( Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) or WPPSI-III (Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence) and a WIAT ( Wechsler Individual Achievement Test) as these two tests give the best indication of a student’s cognitive ability and academic achievement levels.

The scoring of these two tests is done in such a way that when used in combination can predict any discrepancies between intelligence and achievement. Assessment may also be helpful to identify learning disabilities (such as dyslexia), giftedness or under achievement.

The most common is when a child has an average or above average intelligence and is below average in achievement. This is usually due to a specific learning disability in reading or maths.

However, the most important reason for conducting assessment is to develop an individual learning plan for each individual. Everyone learns differently, however, once you know strengths and weaknesses, learning programs can be tailored to an individual’s needs.

For example, if a student struggles with decoding words, then they need to work on a phonics based program. If they are having problems with reading comprehension, then a learning program should target comprehension.

Dyslexia is a learning disability, where it manifests itself as a difficulty with reading and written language.  It is believed to be a brain –based condition.

Basically people with dyslexia are processing language differently to others.
Some have referred to dyslexia as a “gift” because often these people need to find creative ways to solve problems. Despite their difficulties in decoding written language, they can find ways around this and end up solving problems in different ways.  However, for a young person learning to read – it can be frustrating!

Assessment can also identify issues with auditory processing.  Auditory processing is the ability to encode auditory information. Problems in auditory processing may lead to problems in auditory working memory and auditory sequencing. Many dyslexics have auditory processing problems including history of auditory reversals. Auditory processing disorder is recognised as one of the major causes of dyslexia.

Assessment is also useful to detect any difficulties as early as possible. If you detect a problem in learning early, then early intervention is essential.

A qualified Educational Psychologist is the best person to conduct these assessments. They can then provide details recommendations for each individual.

Students with learning problems often suffer from a low self esteem.  Counselling is often recommended to help individuals understand that they are not “dumb” or “stupid” – they simply learn differently!

The Whip-See is not a stock man’s whip or a blender! It is simply an abbreviation that many psychologists use to represent the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. Like the WISC is not the WISK! (Sorry for the confusion – check out the WISC-IV here).

The WPPSI is not a Whip-See or a Whip!

What is a WPPSI?

The WPPSI is a colorful, current, and interesting for children. It measures Full Scale IQ, Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and Processing Speed and has an optional General Language Composite. IQ stands for Intelligent Quotient. It is an indication of a person’s intelligence as indicated by an intelligence test.

The WPPSI had three main Scales:

1. Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) – most reliable and representative of general intellectual functioning. (Information, Vocabulary, Word Reasoning)
2. Verbal IQ (VIQ) – acquired knowledge, verbal reasoning and comprehension, and attention to verbal stimuli.
3. Performance IQ (PIQ) – fluid reasoning, spatial processing, attentiveness to detail, and visual-motor integration. (Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Concepts)

Verbal IQ Sub Tests

• Information: recall of facts learned through interaction with the world.
• Vocabulary: knowledge of and the ability to express the meaning of words.
• Word Reasoning: measures verbal comprehension and reasoning.

Performance IQ Sub Tests

• Block Design: measures the analysis and reproduction of abstract design with blocks.
• Matrix Reasoning: measures verbal reasoning, verbal comprehension, general reasoning ability, the ability to integrate and synthesise different types of information, verbal abstraction, domain knowledge and the ability to generate alternative concepts.
• Picture Concepts: measures abstract, categorical reasoning ability.

The supplemental sub tests of the WPPSI are listed below:

• Comprehension: measures verbal reasoning and conceptualisation, the ability to evaluate and utilise past experience, verbal comprehension and expression, and the ability to demonstrate practical information. This involves knowledge of conventional standards of behaviour, social judgment and maturity, and common sense.
• Picture Completion: measures visual perception and organisation, concentration, and visual recognition of essential details of objects.
• Similarities: measures verbal reasoning and concept formation. This involves auditory comprehension, memory, distinguishing between nonessential and essential features, and verbal expression.
• Receptive Vocabulary: measures ability to comprehend verbal directions, auditory and visual discrimination, auditory memory, auditory processing, and the integration of visual perception and auditory input. This involves phonological memory and working memory.
• Object Assembly: measures visual-perceptual organisation, integration and synthesis of part-whole relationships, non-verbal reasoning, and trial-and-error learning. This involves spatial ability, visual-motor coordination, cognitive flexibility, and persistence.
• Picture Naming: measures expressive language ability, word retrieval from long-term memory, and association of visual stimuli with language.

(Reference: Sattler, 2005)

This is a whisk, not a WISC!

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is referred to as the WISC. (No, not that type of whisk!) The WISC consists of a series of short sub tests that are used to assess cognitive ability. Usually the scores are consistent across the lifespan.

What is a WISC?

The WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Fourth Edition) is an individually administered clinical instrument for assessing cognitive ability of children between the ages of 6 years through to 16 years 11 months. The test provides subtest and composite scores which represent intellectual functioning in specific cognitive domains as well as a composite score which represents general intellectual ability. The WISC-IV takes from 1 ½ to 2 hours to complete. The report and scoring of results takes a qualified psychologist from 4 to 8 hours to complete.

Why might a teacher recommend a WISC Report?

A classroom teacher may recommend a WISC if there are inconsistencies in a child’s performance or a child is struggling to comprehend grade appropriate tasks.  The WISC assesses a student’s learning, potential and ability.  The WISC should be used as a part of a comprehensive psycho educational assessment. Often psychologists will use the WISC and an achievement based test, such as the WIAT–II (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test—Second Edition) to fully assess an individual’s learning profile.

Key Benefits of a WISC Assessment

The main benefits include:

• Early identification of reading & learning issues;
• Useful in identifying learning disabilities;
• Understanding of an individual’s learning profile;
• Identification of gifted children;
• The assessment also helps Schools make appropriate; accommodations and develop learning plans for individual students;
  and
• The ability to determine learning processes, which include both strengths and weaknesses and the impact that they might have on individual student performance.

How to make sense of a WISC report?

The WISC allows the psychologist to identify learning patterns. It has four main components that are referred to as Indexes. These are called the Verbal Comprehension Index, the Perceptual Reasoning Index, the Working Memory Index and the Processing Speed Index.  Within each of these four domains are a variety of subtests that form the index score.

1. The Verbal Comprehension Score emphasises crystallised intelligence and knowledge application.
2. The Perceptual Reasoning Scores related to fluid reasoning/ intelligence or the ability to learn new information.
3. The Working Memory Score assess auditory short term memory and retrieval.
4. The Processing Speed Index had a emphasis on mental quickness and task performance with focused concentration and attention.

Verbal Comprehension Index

Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) – measures verbal concept formation, verbal reasoning, and knowledge acquired from one’s environment. The subtests include:

• Vocabulary: word knowledge and retrieval
• Similarities: Verbal concepts and reasoning
• Comprehension: social knowledge and awareness
• Information*:  recall of verbally-encoded, factual  information
• Word Reasoning*: general reasoning ability

Perceptual Reasoning Index

Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) – measures perceptual and fluid reasoning, spatial processing, and visual-motor integration.  The sub tests include:

• Block Design:  visual spatial reasoning and visual-constructional ability.
• Matrix Reasoning:  non verbal reasoning and concept formation.
• Picture Concepts:  abstract, categorical reasoning.
• Picture Completion:* attention to visual detail.

Working Memory Index

Working Memory Index (WMI) – requires working memory processes to manipulate orally presented verbal sequences. Or to simply recall orally presented sequential information. The sub tests include:

• Digit Span – Digits Forward: Auditory short-term memory.
• Digit Span – Digits Backward:  Auditory working memory.
• Letter-Number Sequencing:  shorter string lengths indicate memory – longer reflect auditory processing.
• Arithmetic:* auditory short-term memory, auditory working memory, fact retrieval.

Processing Speed Index

Processing Speed Index (PSI) – requires visual perception and organisation, visual scanning, and the ability to use hands and eyes together efficiently. The attention factor is two minutes. The sub tests include:

• Coding:  speed and accuracy (fine motor control); incidental learning.
• Symbol Search:  mental processing speed and accuracy.
• Cancellation*:  processing speed, visual selective attention, visual neglect, vigilance.

*supplemental (not included in full scale IQ score)

Reference: Wechsler, D. (2003). WISC – IV Australian Administration and Scoring Manual. Harcourt Assessment.